[Go back to the Framework for communications]

Excerpts of relevant paragraphs of 20 years mandate reporting practice (1986-2006)

E/CN.4/1987/35, paras . 67-71:

"67. As far as the organization of family life in accordance with the religion or belief chosen is concerned, and bearing in mind, as specified in article 5, paragraph 1, the moral education in which the parents or legal guardians believe the child should be brought up, several examples clearly show that this principle is not always respected. In a certain country, for instance, parents belonging to a particular ethnic and religious community are forcibly prevented, in spite of their beliefs, from performing certain rites on their children, such as the circumcision of male children, or from giving them names in keeping with their religious traditions. In another country, girls from families of a certain religious minority are sometimes forced, against the wishes of their families and their own will, to marry members of the majority religion and to adopt their faith. A further example is provided by a country where the members of an unrecognized religious community, unable to assert, in the eyes of the authorities, the legitimacy of the marriage ceremony performed in accordance with their religious rites, are in an irregular legal situation, their children being regarded as illegitimate. In the same country, several cases have been reported of the forcible abduction from their parents of children belonging to this religious community. In another country, it would appear that the authorities have separated children from parents belonging to a religious sect not officially registered, in order to prevent parents from bringing up their children in accordance with their religious beliefs.

68. The right of children to have access to education in the matter of religion or belief in accordance with the wishes of his parents or guardians is frequently infringed. Thus, in several countries, the State places certain restrictions on the enjoyment of this right. In one case, religious instruction for children is tolerated only in private within the family; restriction also occur in practice when, for instance, the teaching of the religious language of a minority is not tolerated officially for the members of this religious minority. In another case, religious instruction is strictly controlled by the authorities. Elsewhere, a ministerial decision stipulates that no religious school offering instruction in the precepts of a particular faith may function until it has been assigned a specific location and obtained ministerial permission, and that all such schools are subject to control by the authorities. In another country, the local publication or importation of holy writings forming the basis of religious instruction is forbidden. In yet another country, the ban on all administrative and community activities relating to a particular faith has brought about the dissolution of the classes in which the followers of this faith taught children the principles and precepts of their religion.

69. Sometimes, children are not only denied access to the religious education in accordance with the choice of their parents, but are also compelled to receive teaching on a religion or belief against their wishes. Thus, in several countries, an attempt is being made to inculcate in children, within the general framework of school programmes, values inherent in a particular ideology or belief, which may be incompatible with the religious beliefs of the parents. Religious indoctrination may at times be taken to an extreme degree. In one country, pupils belonging to a outlawed religious community were abducted by their religious education instructors in school, where instruction is given on the officially recognized faith, and forcibly converted to that faith. In another country, pupils belonging to a religious minority were compelled to attend religious instruction courses in a faith different from their own. Finally, there is the case of a country where religious instruction was made compulsory in kindergarten, arousing protests from many educational organizations.

70. As far as the provisions of article 5, paragraph 3, of the Declaration are concerned, it has already been possible to conclude, when studying a number of examples of discriminatory treatment based on religion or belief, that the children of believers are subject to discrimination of various kinds, such as ill-treatment and humiliation at school, expulsion from school or a ban on embarking on higher education, pressure to deny their faith, and even in certain extreme cases imprisonment, torture and summary execution.

71. The tacit or explicit encouragement of the authorities of certain countries to denigrate the values and ideas embraced by certain religions or beliefs has already been mentioned. It is obvious that such conduct is hardly compatible with the provisions of article 5, paragraph 3, of the Declaration concerning education based on understanding, tolerance and respect for freedom of religion or belief of others."

E/CN.4/2002/73/Add.2, paras . 104-110:

"1 . La mutilation des organes génitaux de la femme

104. Les mutilations génitales des femmes, ou excision ou encore circoncision féminine , sont les plus connues , mais aussi les plus médiatisées des pratiques préjudiciables à la santé des femmes. Elles ont été depuis longtemps portées à l'attention des organes et organismes internationaux des droits de l'homme et constitue même l'un des objets principaux du mandat du Rapporteur spécial sur les pratiques traditionnelles affectant la santé des femmes et des enfants . Ces mutilations consistent en l'ablation d'une partie ou de la totalité des organes génitaux féminins . D'après les chiffres de l'OMS cités par le Rapporteur spécial , il y aurait entre 85 et 115 millions de femmes et de fillettes sexuellement mutilées en Afrique et en Asie . Selon les mêmes sources deux millions de fillettes risqueraient de subir cette mutilation chaque année ( E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/6, par. 21). Cette pratique dont les formes varient d'un pays à l'autre , serait répandue dans 26 pays africains , dans des pays d'Asie , dans des communautés d'immigrants d'Europe et d'Amérique et dans les communautés juives d'origine éthiopienne et bédouine en Israël [ Voir le rapport sur les pratiques traditionnelles préjudiciables . (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/11, par. 55, 56 et 59).]. Pourtant , l'origine historique de l'excision est des plus mystérieuses . Ce qui semble certain est que cette pratique , qui a résisté à l'épreuve du temps, n'est liée à aucune religion particulière . Elle aurait été inventée par les pharaons qui la pratiquaient pour préserver la chasteté de leurs épouses quand ils partaient en guerre. Elle aurait existé chez les Phéniciens , les Hittites, les Éthiopiens , les ethnies païennes des zones tropicales d'Afrique et des Philippines, les Incas du Mexique , des ethnies d'Amazonie et d'Australie . Chez certains peuples , on croit que les êtres humains naissent naturellement bisexuels . Le prépuce doit être enlevé à l'homme pour lui donner sa masculinité ; on doit soustraire à la femme son organe viril , le clitoris, afin d'assurer sa pleine féminité [ Voir Samuel, op. cit., (supra, note 14), p. 45. Consulter aussi le site www.cam.org/~rqasf/sp07_02.html.]. Elle aurait été même pratiquée en Europe au XIXe siècle par des médecins pour traiter certains troubles mentaux chez les femmes.

105. Comme le constate le Rapporteur spécial sur les pratiques traditionnelles , l'excision qui a été exercée par un certain nombre de peuples et de sociétés à travers les âges et les continents « relève davantage d'un ensemble de croyances , de valeurs , de comportements culturels et sociaux qui régissent la vie des sociétés données » (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/14, par. 8). Cela explique sans doute la charge émotionnelle qui entoure les croyances liées à cette pratique , la difficulté d'en parler , y compris dans les pays concernés et au sein des organisations internationales compétentes et, par conséquent , l'exigence de prudence qui s'impose relativement à toute mesure destinée à l'éliminer [ Voir le rapport sur les pratiques traditionnelles préjudiciables . (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/14, par. 6 et 7).].

106. Aujourd'hui , l'excision est pratiquée par des communautés diverses appartenant à différentes traditions religieuses [ Voir notamment les exemples du Soudan , du Mali, de la République centrafricaine , de la Côte d'Ivoire, in Th.  Lococh , « Pratiques , opinions et attitudes en matière d'excision en Afrique », Revue Population , 1998, n o  6, p. 1227. Pour le Cameroun, voir le rapport du Comité des droits de l'homme (A/55/40, vol.  I, par. 197).] . La forme la plus extrême , l'infibulation ou «excision pharaonique », consiste en l'ablation du clitoris et des petites lèvres . Elle serait la forme la plus cruelle et la plus préjudiciable à la santé des fillettes [ Dans certaines cultures, les petites lèvres sont recousues à l'aide d'épines , de petits morceaux de bois ou de fils de soie . La petite fille doit rester allongée quarante jours les jambes attachées afin que la cicatrice se referme . Une minuscule ouverture est maintenue pour permettre l'écoulement des urines et du sang menstruel . Le soir des noces , la femme est ouverte par son mari . Elle est souvent réinfibulée après chaque accouchement, tant que son mari l'exigera .], elle serait pratiquée en Somalie , à Djibouti, au Soudan , au Mali, en Égypte et en Éthiopie . L'excision partielle ou clitoridectomie ou encore circoncision sunna , serait pratiquée en Afrique de l'Ouest , du Centre et de l'Est [ L'excision est appelée à tort « circoncision féminine »; le clitoris n'est pas un morceau de peau , mais une partie vitale des organes génitaux féminins . Le seul équivalent masculin envisageable serait l'ablation du pénis !]. Certains pays d'Asie comme le Yémen , l'Indonésie , la Malaisie pratiquent l'excision , mais certaines communautés suivent un rituel symbolique et parfois une simple incision sans procéder à aucune mutilation [ Voir le rapport sur les pratiques . (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/14, par. 36).] .

107. L'âge auquel interviennent les mutilations varie selon les pays et les cultures. Il serait de quelques jours chez les Juifs falashas en Éthiopie et au Soudan , alors que dans de nombreux pays la mutilation est pratiquée entre 7 et 15 ans selon des rituels parfois complexes. L'excision est considérée comme «un rite de passage» de l'enfance au statut de femme, c'est à dire un rite d'initiation à l'âge adulte ou pour tempérer le désir sexuel et préserver la virginité des futures mariées . Dans certaines communautés , elle est perçue comme un rite de «purification» [ Notamment dans les tribus bédouines du sud d'Israël ; voir le rapport sur les pratiques . (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/11 ,par . 56).] . Les pressions sociales et les pesanteurs culturelles amènent souvent les jeunes filles et leurs mères à se soumettre d'elles-mêmes à de telles pratiques pour être pleinement intégrées à leur communauté [ E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/6, par. 36.] . Selon le Rapporteur spécial sur les pratiques traditionnelles , il semblerait que les différences d'âge au cours duquel intervient la mutilation selon les pays soient liées à l'existence ou non d'une législation interdisant la pratique [ Ibid., par. 22 et 23.] . Dans d'autres pays, elle aurait totalement disparu du fait du développement et de l'éducation des filles [ Notamment au Qatar (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/11, par. 66).].

108. Les mutilations génitales féminines sont associées à tort à la religion et à l'islam en particulier . Aucun texte religieux n'oblige les croyants à procéder aux mutilations. Celles ci seraient pratiquées chez des peuples de religions diverses : musulmans , catholiques , protestants, coptes , juifs , animistes , non- croyants . [ Consulter le site www.cam.org/~rqasf/sp07_02.html.] . L'excision est un exemple parmi tant d'autres qui montre que l'argument de la spécificité culturelle ou religieuse peut être à la fois dangereux et erroné . En effet , lorsqu'elle est pratiquée par les musulmans , l'excision est présentée et revendiquée comme un acte religieux [ C'est le cas notamment du Soudan ( voir supra , note 11).] . La pratique a pourtant cours chez les non musulmans et de nombreuses communautés musulmanes , non seulement ne la connaissent pas, mais sont choquées à l'idée qu'elle puisse être considérée de près ou de loin comme une pratique ayant un fondement religieux [ Le même raisonnement peut être transposé à d'autres pratiques telles que la dot, la polygamie , le sort réservé aux femmes adultères .] .

109. En Égypte , par le fait de l'extrémisme religieux , un décret du Ministre de la santé de 1996 interdisant au corps médical de pratiquer l'excision , a été annulé en 1997 par une juridiction administrative. Dans un arrêt de principe du 28 décembre 1997 le Conseil d'État a tranché définitivement la question en annulant la décision de la juridiction inférieure et en affirmant qu'il était « désormais interdit de pratiquer l'excision , même en cas de consentement de la fille et des parents. La circoncision des filles n'est pas un droit individuel aux termes de la charia . Rien dans le Coran ne l'autorise » (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/14, par. 41). Il est évident qu'une telle décision a des implications importantes puisque l'interdiction s'applique même en cas de consentement de la victime ou de ses parents. Il s'agit d'une véritable question touchant l'ordre public qui va à l'encontre des traditions culturelles nocives . D'un autre côté , le Conseil d'État a bien distingué les prescriptions religieuses et les traditions culturelles nocives qui sont fondées sur une interprétation erronée , voire une manipulation politique de la religion.

110. Les mutilations génitales féminines ont des répercussions graves sur la vie et la santé de la femme: elles entraînent souvent le décès ou l'invalidité des victimes , des hémorragies vaginales et de nombreuses complications génito urinaires et gynécologiques , ainsi que des problèmes psychologiques durables [V oir le rapport du CEDAW (A/54/38/Rev.1, par.12) et le rapport sur les pratiques traditionnelles (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/6, par. 45).]. Cette pratique ainsi que la polygamie ou le viol conjugal augmentent le risque pour les adolescentes et les femmes de contracter le VIH/ sida et les autres maladies sexuellement transmissibles (A/54/38/Rev.1, par. 18)."

A/60/399, paras . 40-68:

"52. [...] Since the choice of religion or belief is part of the forum internum , which allows for no limitations, a general prohibition of conversion by a State necessarily enters into conflict with applicable international standards. A law prohibiting conversion would constitute a State policy aiming at influencing individual's desire to have or adopt a religion or belief and is therefore not acceptable under human rights law. A State also has the positive obligation of ensuring the freedom of religion or belief of the persons on its territory and under its jurisdiction.

53. In the cases where non-State actors interfere with the right to "have or adopt a religion or belief of [one's] choice", the requirements of article 18 of the Covenant and other relevant international instruments also entail a positive obligation for the State to protect persons from such interference. The Special Rapporteur wishes to re-iterate in this regard that States must ensure that the persons on their territory and under their jurisdiction, including members of religious minorities, can practise the religion or belief of their choice free of coercion and fear. If non-State actors interfere with this freedom, and especially the freedom to change or to maintain one's religion, the State is obliged to take appropriate measures to investigate, bring the perpetrators to justice and compensate the victims (see also E/CN.4/2005/61, para . 42).

54. Finally, the Special Rapporteur notes that with regard to children, the choice of religion is restricted by the parents' rights to determine their child's religion up to an age where the child is capable of doing so on his/her own, in accordance with article 18, paragraph 4, of the Covenant."

E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.4, paras . 98-104 (country visit to France ):

"The question of religious symbols in the public school system

98. Law 2004-228 of 15 March 2004 on the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools is widely supported by the political apparatus as well as by the population. Although the law is intended to apply equally to all persons, the Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that it has mainly affected certain religious minorities, and notably, people of a Muslim background. The Special Rapporteur believes that the wide political support for the law has conveyed a demoralizing message to religious minorities in France .

99. The law is appropriate insofar as it is intended, in accordance with the principle of the best interests of the child, to protect the autonomy of minors who may be pressured or forced to wear a headscarf or other religious symbols. However, the law denies the right of those minors who have freely chosen to wear a religious symbol to school as part of their religious belief.

100. The Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that the direct and, in particular, the indirect consequences of this law may not have been thoroughly considered. Although many interlocutors at the governmental level are satisfied with the results of the implementation of the law, she noticed that the figures are often disputed, including because the criteria used for the assessment vary. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur considers that aside from statistics, the issue is one of principle.

101. The concerns of the Special Rapporteur are more serious with regard to the indirect consequences of Law 2004-228 in the longer term. The implementation of the law by educational institutions has led, in a number of cases, to abuses that have provoked humiliation, in particular amongst young Muslim women. According to many sources, such humiliation can only lead to the radicalization of the persons affected and those associated with them. Moreover, the stigmatization of the headscarf has provoked instances of religious intolerance when women wear it outside school, at university or in the workplace. Although the law was aimed at regulating symbols related to all religions, it appears to mainly target girls from a Muslim background wearing the headscarf.

102. The Special Rapporteur encourages the Government to closely monitor the way educational institutions are implementing the law, in order to avoid the feelings of humiliation that were reported to her during her visit. She also recommends a flexible implementation of the law which would accommodate the schoolchildren for whom the display of religious symbols constitutes an essential part of their faith.

103. In all circumstances, the Government should uphold the principle of the best interests of the child and guarantee the fundamental right of access to education, as has been recommended by several United Nations treaty-monitoring bodies.

104. Moreover, the Government should take appropriate measures to better inform school authorities, and more generally the French population, about the exact nature and purpose of the law. It should be made clear that the wearing or display of religious symbols is an essential part of the right to manifest one's religion or belief that can only be limited under restrictive conditions. The Government should also promptly provide redress in any situation where persons have been the victim of discrimination or other act of religious intolerance because of their religious symbols, including by prosecuting the perpetrators of such acts in the relevant cases."

A/64/159, paras. 25-28 and 68:

25. Children are also vulnerable with regard to their right to freedom of religion or belief. The mandate has reported on various forms of discriminatory treatment which derive both from governmental actions and from incidents provoked by non-State actors. The Special Rapporteur is concerned at the abuse and violence against children who are accused by their families of witchcraft. She has also been informed of a number of cases where children, especially girls, were allegedly abducted by members of a different religious community, forced into marriage and converted against their will to a different religion. In this regard, she would like to emphasize that no one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his or her freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his or her choice, [International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 18, para. 2.] and that the betrothal or marriage of a child shall have no legal effect.[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, article 16, para. 2.] As reaffirmed by article 3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration in all actions concerning children.

26. The rights of the child concerning freedom of religion or belief remain a complex issue, especially because they touch upon the position of the child but may also concern his or her parents or legal guardians as well as the religious communities involved. The right of the child to freedom of religion or belief is enshrined in article 14, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The parental rights are immediately reaffirmed in article 14, paragraph 2, which requires States parties to respect the rights and duties of the parents and, when applicable, legal guardians, to provide direction to the child in the exercise of his or her right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child.

27. The Special Rapporteur would like to briefly analyse the concept of “evolving capacities” in the context of the child’s right to freedom of religion or belief. Domestic legal provisions differ largely, for example with regard to the competency to decide when children can themselves be able to adopt a different religion or belief of their choice. In some countries, children who have not yet reached the age of 10 years may convert if both of their parents agree to conversion or if the competent court approves conversion upon the application of one of the parents. Some national laws feature staggered age limits, for example, that children who are older than 14 years may decide their religious affiliation for themselves and that a child from the age of 12 onwards cannot be educated under a different religion than previously against his or her will. Other laws set the age of 15 or 16 years as a legal threshold for reaching full religious maturity.

28. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur would like to caution against strict age limits which may not fully take into consideration the maturity and evolving capacities of the child in all cases. Such strict limits may lead to situations where a child is legally considered as mature while this is not yet the case, or where a truly mature child is denied his or her rights for some time. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur would advocate for a case-by-case approach according to the specific circumstances of each situation. This is also supported by article 12, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which requests States parties to assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child. [In this regard, see CRC/C/GC/12, paras. 17, 21, 29, 75 and 84.] [...]

68. The situation of children and their freedom of religion or belief also deserve specific mention. In line with the concept of “evolving capacities” of the child and in order to ensure free and informed choices about his or her freedom of religion or belief, the Special Rapporteur would like to highlight the following approaches. Special attention should be paid to encouraging positive attitudes and, in view of the best interests of the child, to supporting parents to exercise their rights and fully play their role in education in the field of tolerance and non-discrimination. [See E/CN.4/2002/73, appendix, para. 9.] Rather than leading to indoctrination, teaching about religions and beliefs should be carried out in a fair and balanced manner. In this regard, the Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools[Prepared by the OSCE/ODIHR Advisory Council of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief; text available online at www.osce.org/publications/odihr/2007/11/28314_993_en.pdf.] provide practical guidance for preparing curricula for teaching about religions and beliefs as well as preferred procedures for assuring fairness in the development of such curricula. In addition, States should endeavour to eradicate prejudices and conceptions incompatible with freedom of religion or belief, and to ensure respect for and acceptance of pluralism and diversity in the field of religion or belief.

[Go back to the Framework for communications]